Riparian Buffering

Planting vegetation on embankments and riverbanks helped to stabilise soil and prevent erosion. Planting vegetation retains extra water. Trees, shrubs, reeds, and grass can absorb large amounts of water. Their roots can help to stabilise riverbanks and embankments. The roots of these plants bind the soil together. This reduces the likelihood of embankment or riverbank failure during floods. Vegetation can also help to slow the flow of water and reduce the risk of flooding. This practice, known as riparian buffering, is still used today to reduce the amount of run-off water that enters waterways in some countries. Vegetation planting is used by ancient populations in Inca, Maya, Greece, Rome, Mesopotamia, China, Africa, and India in reducing destructive effects of floods of the rivers, for example, Tigris, Euphrates, Nile, Niger, Congo, Yellow River, Yangtze River, Pearl River, Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra. Modern and highly mechanised farming requires big farms without obstructions, so terracing and riparian buffering were removed in some countries to make mechanised farming easy. This led to the flooding of the rivers downstream as the water from rainfall and snowmelt reaches the rivers faster without much absorption in the soil or impediments on its path. So riparian buffering can be considered as a method for water flow management.

River Modifications

River Engineering, River Channelisation and River Training lead to river modification. River engineering is the human intervention in the course, characteristics, or flow of a river with the intention of producing some defined benefit. People have intervened in the natural course and behaviour of rivers since before recorded history—to manage the water resources, to protect against flooding, or to make passage along or across rivers easier. Canalization of the river for boat traffic is an example. This is achieved by increasing the depth of the river and constructing weirs and locks in the river. The engineering of the river can affect sediment transport patterns. This can influence the flood in a region. So river engineering can also influence flood management. But the built-up areas of the rivers can be utilised for electricity production using Micro and Mini hydroelectric power projects. This is an underexploited area of green energy production.

Ancient civilizations engaged in river channelization projects to control the flow of water. This involved modifying the course of rivers and constructing embankments to prevent flooding and facilitate navigation. The ancient Romans, for instance, engaged in channelizing rivers for various purposes, including boat travel. Communities along major rivers engaged in river training activities to control the course of rivers and manage water flow. This involved constructing embankments, groynes, and other structures to prevent erosion and mitigate the impact of floods on nearby settlements.

Step wells

Step wells were designed to tap into the groundwater table, providing a reliable source of water during dry periods and helping manage water levels. Some of them can be quite deep. But during the rainy season, they can act as water storage structures, reducing the effect of floods.

Utilization Of Natural Barriers

Ancient Australians often utilized natural barriers, such as dense vegetation and rocky outcrops, to divert floodwaters and protect their settlements. They would strategically plant vegetation along riverbanks to stabilise the soil and prevent erosion, while also utilizing rocky areas as natural levees to divert floodwaters away from vulnerable areas. This may be a way of mitigating the effects of flooding without causing too much environmental change, as in the case of the dams, like the Three Gorges Dam in China.

Flood Plain And Wetland Agriculture

Native American communities utilized wetland areas for agriculture. Wetlands can absorb excess water during floods. The native vegetation in these areas helped in managing water levels. Wetland agriculture in parts of West Africa is achieved by cultivating crops in marshy or swampy areas and taking advantage of the abundant water supply in these regions. Floodplain agriculture is about taking advantage of the nutrient-rich sediments and fertile soils deposited by periodic floods. This strategy involved living in harmony with the natural flooding patterns. It also required careful planning to minimize risks. Some Asian countries practiced farming the land area inundated by seawater only during certain periods of the year by adding biowaste materials like the remains of sugar production and planting seedlings of rice. This practice helps to eliminate the weeds and insects that are damaging to rice cultivation. Weeds and insects are usually killed by sea water. Some European communities practiced floodplain agriculture, taking advantage of fertile soils deposited by periodic floods. While this involved living with the periodic inundation, it required careful planning to avoid excessive damage.

Land Management

Land Use Planning

Land use planning involves making decisions about how land is used to reduce the risk of floods. This encourages people to settle in areas that were less likely to be flooded. Ancient Greece and Rome practiced land use planning. China also uses land planning. This practice was implemented by the government. Every continent today is facing floods and inundation, so implementing proper land use planning on the basis of weather data collected and climate change research predictions is less costly in the long run.

Construction of Elevated Structures 

Ancient Australians constructed elevated structures like platforms or raised walkways to provide refuge during floods. These structures allowed them to remain in their settled areas while still being safely above the reach of floodwaters. Such a construction today means that people can escape with their lives, but infrastructure and agricultural fields have to face the wrath of floods.

Building Raised Settlements

This strategy effectively elevates homes and structures above the reach of floodwaters. Building settlements on raised platforms or mounds were common in ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, Rome, China, India, and Africa. They continue to be used today. Mound builders in ancient Mississippi River Valley constructed earthen mounds as elevated platforms for their homes and important structures. A platform that was above the reach of floodwaters is created using stilts in many cultures in the Andes to escape the devastating effects of floods.

Ziggurats

These are found in ancient Babylonia, Iraq, and Assyria, mainly major cities of ancient Mesopotamia. These are stepped pyramidal structures. The raised platform helped to keep these structures above water levels during floods. The raised elevation also allowed for better visibility and control of surrounding areas.

Motte-and-Bailey Castle

Motte-and-bailey castles were constructed on elevated mounds or motte, providing natural protection from floods. They were often situated near water sources for strategic reasons but were designed to minimize the impact of flooding on the settlement.

Developing Flood Resilient Infrastructure

Flood-resistant infrastructure is used to withstand floods. Traditional African architecture often incorporated designs that minimized the impact of flooding. For example, buildings and homes with elevated foundations allow water to flow beneath the structures during floods.

City Planning

Ancient Middle Eastern cities incorporated strategies for flood management. Cities were strategically located on the higher ground, and streets were designed to facilitate drainage. Some cities had sophisticated sewer systems to cope with excess water. Modern city planning has to include structures to keep the water out of the settlement and infrastructure areas, especially during floods caused by heavy and sudden rainfall or snowfall and the resulting floodwaters.

Strategic Relocation

Ancient Australians would temporarily relocate their camps to higher ground, seeking refuge in nearby hills or mountains. This flexible approach allowed them to move with the changing water levels and maintain their well-being during periods of heavy rainfall and flooding. Adapting this strategy to our way of living probably means dedicating lower levels of multi-story buildings to parking so that these levels can be emptied by removing the parked cars or other vehicles in the case of impending flooding. They can also leave the lower level open so that water just flows through it without causing too much damage in the case of floods.

Seasonal Planning

Ancient Australians adapted their seasonal movements and activities to align with flood patterns. They would carefully plan their hunting and gathering activities, ensuring they were not in areas susceptible to flooding during peak seasons. This awareness of seasonal flooding patterns helped to minimize the risk of exposure and loss of resources during flood events.

Agricultural activities in some rice-producing low-lying areas wait till the flooding season is over to start the new planting season to take advantage of the sediment of fertilized soil and avoid water destruction of the crops. 

Seasonal Migration

Nomadic or semi-nomadic communities, practised seasonal migration to move away from flood-prone areas during the rainy season. This adaptive strategy allowed them to avoid the risks associated with rising water levels.

Some Native American groups practised seasonal migration, moving to higher ground during the rainy season to avoid flood-prone areas. This adaptive strategy allowed them to live in harmony with their natural environment.

Some Aboriginal communities in Australia practised seasonal migration, moving between locations based on the availability of resources and the risk of flooding. This adaptive strategy allowed them to avoid flood-prone areas during the wet season

Seasonal Settlements

Some indigenous groups in the Amazon rainforest practised seasonal settlement patterns, moving to higher ground during the flood season and returning to floodplains during the dry season. This allowed them to adapt to the changing water levels.

Relocating settlements to higher ground was a common practice among ancient cultures in North America, as it was a way to avoid the risk of flooding altogether.

Ancient Australians demonstrated a remarkable understanding of floodplain dynamics, recognizing the importance of avoiding areas prone to flooding for settlement purposes. They often chose to establish their camps and villages on higher ground, away from riverbanks and floodplains, minimizing the risk of inundation during floods. Aboriginal groups were selective in choosing campsite locations, often opting for higher ground to reduce the risk of flooding during heavy rains. 

Flooding is yearly occurrence in many cities today. Probably with the rising water levels and climate change instead of extending the cities which are suffering from yearly inundation it may be wise to start building cities in higher grounds.

Forest and Fire Management

Ephemeral wetlands, such as the Kakadu region, practised controlled burning to manage vegetation. It encouraged the growth of water plants, attracting wildlife and supporting sustainable water management.

Indigenous Australians employed controlled burning practices to shape the landscape and manage vegetation. This not only helped to prevent wildfires but also influenced water flow and minimized the risk of intense flooding in certain areas.

Indigenous communities sometimes created firebreaks, cleared areas devoid of vegetation, which could serve as buffers against rapidly spreading fires that might follow flooding events.

Controlled burning of vegetation was employed by some Native American societies to reduce the risk of wildfires that could be exacerbated by heavy rains. This practice also helped maintain a balance in the ecosystem and prevent excessive growth of vegetation near water bodies.

Certain Amazonian societies used selective logging and controlled burning to shape the forest landscape in ways that influenced water flow. This management helped to regulate water levels and prevent extreme flooding.

Forests play a crucial role in regulating water flow and preventing soil erosion. Ancient Sri Lankan societies understood the importance of forest conservation in flood management, and some areas were designated as protected forests to preserve watersheds.

Ancient Australians possessed in-depth knowledge of local waterways, including the behaviour of rivers, creeks, and billabongs. This knowledge enabled them to predict flood events based on subtle changes in water levels, cloud formations, and animal behaviour. Their ability to anticipate floods allowed them to take precautionary measures and prepare for potential inundation. 

Keeping Records and Legal Codes

The ancient Mesopotamians were meticulous record-keepers, and they documented their agricultural and water management practices, including flood management, using cuneiform writing on clay tablets. These Cuneiform records provide valuable insights into the methods used to control water and manage floods.

Legal Codes

In some ancient societies, legal codes included regulations related to water use and flood management. For example, the Code of Hammurabi, one of the earliest and most complete written legal codes from ancient Mesopotamia, contained provisions related to water rights and responsibilities. These codes helped establish water rights and responsibilities, contributing to sustainable water use practices.

Flood forecasting systems

Flood forecasting systems were used by the Inca, who had a system of messengers who would relay information about the level of rivers to the capital city of Cusco. Ancient civilizations developed various flood forecasting systems to predict and prepare for floods. These systems often involved observing natural indicators, such as rainfall patterns and river levels.  The Egyptians developed a sophisticated flood forecasting system by observing the behaviour of the Nile River and predicting flood levels based on the rise of the Sirius star. This system allowed communities to prepare for and mitigate the impact of impending floods. This practice was used by the Egyptians, who had a system of observers who would monitor the level of the Nile River and report any changes to the central government. This information was used to warn people of impending floods and to help them prepare for them. 

The ancient flood management practices developed in Africa were often very effective in reducing the damage caused by floods. For example, the dams and canals built in Egypt were so effective that they were still being used in the region in the 7^th century AD. Today, many of the ancient flood management practices that were developed in Africa are still being used. For example, vegetation is still being planted along riverbanks to stabilise the soil and prevent erosion. Settlements are still being built on raised platforms or mounds in some parts of the region. And flood forecasting systems are still being used to warn people of impending floods.    Mauryans, who had a system of observers who would monitor the level of rivers and report any changes to the central government. This information was used to warn people of impending floods and to help them prepare for them.   Developing early flood warning systems practice is being used in modern India to warn people of impending floods and to help them prepare for them.

The ancient Chinese developed early methods of weather forecasting to predict rainfall and potential floods. Observing natural indicators and using instruments such as rain gauges, they gained insights into weather patterns and adjusted their water management strategies accordingly. This practice was used by the Chinese government, which had a system of observers who would monitor the level of rivers and report any changes to the central government. This information was used to warn people of impending floods and to help them prepare for them. In addition, new flood management practices are being developed, such as the use of early warning systems and the construction of flood-resistant infrastructure. These new practices are helping to reduce the impact of floods around the world.

Weather predictions today depends on data processing of quantitative data collected using many instruments as well as computer based models with the help of supercomputers. The chaotic nature of the atmosphere as well as initial data collecting errors can lead to the inaccuracy in predicting weather.

Conclusions

Many low-lying countries and regions are going through inundations almost every year because of rising sea levels and climate change. Some regions face the inundation more than once in a year. Some of the above water management devices and methods can be applied in these regions. The water management control devices and methods can be selected on the basis of the data accumulated regarding weather patterns, and predictions on the basis of previous inundation incidents. Last hundred years we have invented many instruments for collecting quantitative data needed for weather forecasts, as the computer power increases with the quantum computing the accuracy of weather forecasting can be increased.

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